The Shifting of Taxes on Sales of Land
and Capital Goods and on Loans
Harry Gunnison Brown
[Reprinted from the Journal of Political Economy,
Vol. 29, No. 8 (October, 1921), pp. 643-653]
I
A tax on commodities is wholly or partly shifted upon consumers
according as the taxed goods are produced under conditions of constant
or increasing cost, respectively, and according as the demand for
these goods -- if they are produced under conditions of increasing
cost-is absolutely inelastic, or is more or less elastic. If the
conditions of production of a taxed commodity are those of constant
cost, and if the industry is a competitive one, all of those in the
business (with their land and capital) would leave and go into some
other line or lines of production rather than bear any special tax.[1]
If the demand for a taxed article is absolutely elastic, all the
consumers will refuse to buy rather than pay an appreciably higher
price. Usually both demand and supply are somewhat elastic. Some of
the persons engaged in producing the taxed article are unwilling to
continue so doing unless they can shift substantially the entire tax;
but others may be willing to continue producing though they can shift
but a part or none. Likewise, some buyers will not purchase a taxed
good, or will purchase appreciably less of it, if the tax is shifted
to them in any noticeable degree; but others will purchase though they
have to pay some or all of the tax in the form of a higher price. A
tax on commodities, therefore, or on a given commodity, while it is
usually borne chiefly by consumers, may frequently be borne in part by
producers of the goods or good taxed.
The case of taxes on sales of land or capital goods or on mort- gages
or loans is analogous. But while taxes on commodities fall upon
consumers as such, regardless of the various sources of their incomes,
and so rest on interest, wages, and rent,[2] we may find that taxes on
sales of land or capital goods or on loans have a somewhat different
ultimate incidence.
Let us begin by asking what would be the incidence of an appreciable
tax on sales of land, e.g., 1 per cent of the value of each sale. We
may assume that only some buyers and some sellers are marginal, that
the remainder of buyers would pay a higher price rather than not buy,
and that the remainder of the sellers would accept a lower net price
rather than not sell. To illustrate the likely situation, on a small
scale and in a simple way, we may suppose a number of pieces of land
of equally good quality and location. Five of these tracts are owned
by A, B, C, D, and E, respectively, each of whom would sell for a
price of $10,000. Of the potential buyers, five, V, NV, X, Y, and Z,
would purchase at that price. The price of $10,000 is, then, a price
at which all the land of the given description can be sold which the
owners are willing to sell at that price. It is the price which "
equalizes demand and supply, " in the absence of any tax on the
sales.
But what will be the conditions of equalization of demand and supply
if sales of land are obstructed by a 1 per cent tax? Since, by
hypothesis, some of the buyers are marginal, the price of what land is
sold can rise by the entire amount of the tax only if several of the
sellers are also marginal, i.e., would rather keep their land than to
receive for it, after subtracting the tax, less than $10,000 for each
tract or plot. If all of the would-be purchasers are marginal, any
rise of price whatsoever must result in no sales; and if all of the
would-be sellers are marginal, their inability to charge any higher
price because of the tax must result in no sales. But if, of the five
owners of land who, in the absence of a tax, would sell for $10,000,
three would rather take (say) $9,940 net than not to sell; and if, of
the five prospective buyers, three would rather pay $10,040 than not
to buy, then three sales will take place in spite of the tax, and the
tax will be borne $40 by each purchaser and $60 by each seller.[3]
Demand and supply will be equalized, assuming a tax of $100 on each
sale, with a net sale price of $9,940 and a gross sale price of
$10,040. The tax is then divided between buyer and seller.
So far, the argument is perhaps obvious and, possibly, commonplace.
But further analysis is desirable. From what sort of economic income
is the tax paid-or does it come from several sources? Is it drawn from
rent or from interest or from wages? Let us consider, first, whatever
part of such a tax is paid by the purchaser. Before we inquire
whether, of the part paid by the purchaser, any portion is drawn from
economic rent, we may advantageously state our conception of rent. The
rent of such a piece of land as we have in contemplation is to be
reckoned as measured and determined by the difference between the
annual product of industry and what that product would be if this
specific piece of land were non-existent, and if, therefore, the labor
and capital employed upon it had instead to be used on the margin
(extensive or intensive) of production. Those business enterprisers to
whom it makes the maximum difference whether or not they secure the
use of supra-marginal land of a given description, will ordinarily
offer enough for it so as to outbid enterprisers to whom its relative
advantages are less. The rental value of land of this description is
(assuming perfect competition) what that tenant would pay who is a
marginal tenant, i.e., who is just induced to hire a piece of this
land, and without whom the supply of such land, offered at the given
rent, would exceed the demand. Tenants of other plots of land of this
description, who are supra- marginal tenants, may produce absolutely
more from the land they hire than does the marginal tenant from his,
or they may produce merely more relatively to what they could produce
on no-rent land or more than they could earn as hired employees. But
whatever these supra-marginal tenants get in excess of the rent they
pay (and in excess of interest on the capital they use) may fairly be
reckoned as their wages or remuneration for effort, or, as it is
sometimes called when the effort is self-directed, their profits.[4]
A tax on land sales may conceivably have an indirect effect on rent
although, in the respect we are about to discuss, it is unlikely to.
Thus, such a tax may make some would-be purchasers prefer to be
tenants and so may tend to increase the demand for land to rent. But
it seems about equally likely that the tax would make some intending
sellers prefer to lease their land to tenants, and would so increase
the supply of land to be rented.
A tax on sales of land may, however, be drawn directly from rent.
Suppose, for example, that the supra-marginal buyer, who can rather
afford to pay a part of the tax than not to buy, is interested in this
land only as a prospective recipient of rent. He does not intend to do
any work on it or to improve it in any way, but merely to lease it --
perhaps for fifty years -- with suitable guaranty of rent payment. He
purchases the land, perhaps because a change of residence removes him
so far from property he formerly owned as to make him fear loss
through lack of oversight. He therefore sells his former property, but
from the rent which his new property yields, a part must be subtracted
to reimburse him for the tax. In such a case the tax is drawn, in the
last analysis, from rent.
But the tax may in other circumstances be drawn from labor income.
Consider the case of a supra-marginal buyer, who, as a tenant, could
earn for himself $1,000 a year in excess of rent and interest, and who
could invest his funds in bonds or mortgages so as to get as large a
per cent return as the economic rent of the land would be. Such a
buyer, however, might be one who, with the freedom and power of
initiative of an owner of the land, could get by using it, not only
what it would rent for,[5] but $1,100 a year besides. In other words,
he might be a person whose labor income as such would be $100 a year
larger if he could direct his own labor entirely and use his own
judgment in managing the land than if he had to work as a tenant or an
employee. Such a person could better afford to pay a part or all of
the tax than not to become an owner. The tax would be, in ultimate
effect, a subtraction from his labor income. He would be able to pay
the tax because his labor income as an owner of this land so far
exceeds his labor income in any other option. He can pay it because he
has a profits or wages surplus above what would be necessary to make
him follow the occupation of an independent entrepreneur or
enterpriser. In the absence of the tax he would simply enjoy this
surplus labor income. But since it is a larger labor income than he
can secure in his best alternative, and since he has available funds
to invest, he is willing to pay a higher price for his land in order
that he may enjoy this surplus. He is willing, if necessary, to
purchase the privilege of earning such a surplus. And in that sense
the tax, or the part of it which he pays, may be regarded as a capital
investment looking toward a larger future income than the purchaser
could otherwise get from his labor.
In passing it may be added that, when land is bought by a consumer as
such, e.g., for a home, the supra-marginal buyer pays his part of the
tax out of his "consumer's surplus." Some would rather rent
than pay any tax. They are marginal. Others are willing to pay a tax
for the consumer's satisfaction of ownership.
Consider, now, the case of the sellers. The marginal seller will pay
no tax. Rather than sell for less than $10,000 (to use the figure of
our example) he perhaps will prefer to operate the land himself or to
lease it and enjoy the rent. But another potential seller may be
differently situated. Perhaps he lives so far from the land he owns
that he would feel safer to invest in other property, and would so
prefer to pay part or all of the tax rather than not sell. Part of the
interest or rent, or both, derived from his new investment may then be
regarded as drawn upon to pay his loss -- though he may simply regard
himself as permanently that much poorer. Still another potential
seller may prefer to sell in order that he may work as an employee and
relieve himself of supervisory functions for which he is relatively
unfitted and which he cannot satisfactorily delegate. Such a seller in
effect makes good his tax out of the larger labor income which he is
thereafter enabled to earn.
That a tax on sales of land would prevent some exchanges and keep
some persons from performing the functions for which they are best
fitted is probably true. Efficiency of production might so be
decreased. But our present interest is rather with the problem whence
comes, in the last analysis, the tax money. It is perhaps hardly
necessary to remark that similar conclusions would apply in the case
of a tax on the sale or transference of any capital equipment.
II
But perhaps a more interesting problem-and one which may be discussed
in a very similar way -- is the problem of the taxation of mortgages
and of loans in general, and the shifting of such taxation. Economists
in the field of taxation are wont to state that a tax on mortgages is
shifted upon borrowers, although sometimes they qualify the statement
slightly, admitting that there may be cases where not quite all of the
tax is so shifted. But the usual analysis is incomplete, and,
therefore, unsatisfactory. The assumption is generally made that most
lenders are marginal and will refuse to lend unless they can add
practically the entire tax to the interest charged the borrower. This
may be ordinarily true in jurisdictions where evasion of mortgage
taxation is prevented, because practically every potential lender has
an alternative almost, if not quite, as good in his ability to invest
in bonds or to invest in mortgages on property in another jurisdiction
or state. If, and where, the potential lenders, however, through
unfamiliarity with their other possible options, or through prejudice,
are excluded from taking advantage of such options, these lenders are
likely to bear part of such a tax, for most of them will prefer,
perhaps, to receive somewhat lower net interest than not to lend.
We can perhaps get a clearer glimpse of the theory of the subject if
we suppose the alternatives of lending through some other method-such
as bond-buying-to be shut off by making the tax general on all loans.
Let us suppose, then, a federal tax of (say) 2 per cent on loans of
every kind, so that the lender may not avoid the tax by making a
different kind of loan, or a loan in a different jurisdiction, and let
us suppose that information or stoppage at source is so effective as
to prevent evasion. Would the whole of such a tax be shifted to
borrowers?
A proper solution of the problem requires a consideration of the
various alternatives of borrowers and lenders. Undoubtedly some
borrowers would be marginal. Such would refuse to borrow should the
charge on loans rise by one iota. Some corporations which had intended
to borrow by selling their bonds would instead sell stock. Some
individuals who otherwise would have sought to get title to their
homes, by purchasing on mortgage, would now prefer to remain tenants.
Some business men who might have borrowed, and so purchased the
premises they use, would instead rent their premises. Some persons
who, in the absence of the tax, would have purchased farms on borrowed
money, giving mortgage security, would instead become tenants, hired
managers, or laborers.
On the other hand, some borrowers are supra-marginal. The prospective
home-owner who would purchase rather than rent, even if a tax on
mortgages adds to his interest rate, the business man to whom
ownership of the premises he occupies and the resulting freedom to
make what changes he desires without let or hindrance means much in
larger annual income, the farm tenant to whom the difference between
being an owner and being a tenant is likewise significant enough in
prospective larger income to make borrowing at a higher rate still
preferable to continued tenancy-these are supra-marginal borrowers. If
all borrowers were thus supra- marginal, and if some of the lenders
were marginal, the borrowers would clearly pay much or all of the tax.
But some of the lenders are also likely to be supra-marginal. For if,
as on our present hypothesis, all loans are taxed, lenders cannot
avoid the tax by merely changing the form of the loan or by loaning to
a corporation instead of to an individual. Those owners of funds who
do not wish to lend must either invest their funds in corporation
stock, with the greater risk of such investment, or must invest still
more directly under their own entrepreneurship or must use up their
wealth in current gratifications. But some of them will be persons who
would readily take less interest than before -- perhaps 2 per cent
less -- in preference to investing where the risk is greater. Some,
also, may prefer to take lower interest and be free of the necessity
of personally directing their investments than to have to work as
business enterprisers or entrepreneurs. And some lenders can employ
their capital so inefficiently themselves that they can better afford
to lend it at a considerably lower net interest than before, perhaps
then engaging in work under another's superintendence, than themselves
to direct the use of their own capital. Under such circumstances it is
reasonable to suppose that part of a tax on loans might fall upon
lenders. If to add the entire tax to the interest borne by borrowers
would cause some borrowers-the marginal ones-not to borrow, and if
many of the lenders would rather lend for less than not to lend, then
a part of the burden of the tax is likely to fall upon lenders.
On what sorts of income does such a tax on loans finally rest? So far
as borrowers bear it, it will be likely to come out of their surplus
labor incomes above what they would earn as tenants or employees. The
supra-marginal borrower is willing to pay a part of the tax just
because he can produce more and get a larger labor income as a
self-directing titular owner than otherwise. Supra- marginal
borrowers, at least, who thus borrow in spite of the tax, will not be
likely because of it to do less work or produce fewer goods. And
marginal borrowers, though the tax prevents them from borrowing, will
not therefore be prevented from working. We need not conclude,
therefore, that consumers, as such, will have to pay the tax in higher
prices of goods.
Other borrowers-those, for example, who borrow for the pleasure of
having title to their homes-pay their part of the tax out of
consumers' surplus. In the case of the ordinary tax on mortgages, when
loans and investments of other sorts are not reached, the lenders'
options are so numerous and good that they will usually pay next to
nothing of the tax; but borrowers who want funds to purchase farms or
homes will frequently be unable to borrow the required amounts except
on mortgage security, and, therefore, if they are supra-marginal, are
likely to pay the entire tax.
In the case of a tax on all loans, lenders are likely to pay a part.
But out of what incomes or classes of income will they pay it? Can it
be said that they will pay it out of interest? Clearly the net returns
these lenders receive on the capital they loan is reduced by the tax.
In this case the tax does not come out of wages, and it certainly does
not appear to be drawn from rent as such.[6] It comes, definitely,
from interest. Whether, in the long run, such a tax may affect saving
adversely, decrease the supply of and increase the marginal
productivity of capital, and, by so doing, injure other classes, we
shall not here inquire. Indeed, it is doubtful whether we could reach
on this point, with confidence, any conclusion. Suffice it to say that
we have shown the incidence of a tax on loans, so far, to be partly on
income from labor (when borne by borrowers who borrow for ownership
and production), partly on consumers' surplus (when borne by persons
who borrow to get title to their homes), and partly on interest (when
borne by lenders).
We have not yet, however, sufficiently discussed the question whether
a tax on mortgages or a tax on all loans could be shifted upon
consumers. If there are some industries which make a larger
proportionate use of loans than others-the others depending on direct
investment or on stock sales rather than bond issues-then the tax may
tend slightly to divert capital out of the former industries and into
the latter (those not making use of loans). This would somewhat
increase the prices of some commodities, but it would lower the prices
of other commodities. Consumers, as a whole, would not, perhaps, lose
on the one hand more than they would gain on the other. But so far as
the tax affects all industries equally, it does not tend to drive
capital out of any one business into others. Furthermore, persons who
are prevented, by the tax, from becoming owners of property, have
still to earn a living and will often produce as tenants, hired
managers, or laborers, the same kind or kinds of goods they would
produce as owners. If and when this is not the case, and the would-be
purchaser of land and capital, being prevented from purchasing, does
not produce the kind of goods to the production of which the property
is adapted, the would-be seller who might have ceased to produce those
goods may instead continue to produce them. A tax on loans or on
mortgage loans is distinctly not a tax on commodities, and its
incidence is not on consumers as such. It may have evils in preventing
property from getting into the hands of persons who can do relatively
the best with it. It may thus affect the efficiency and earning power
of those who are prevented from buying or selling. But these do not
pay the tax since the threat of it prevented their intended
transactions. And there can be no shifting of a tax where there is no
tax to shift. If labor efficiency is reduced, those who are therefore
unable to earn so much suffer in their wages or profits. Neither they
nor others suffer as consumers.
III
The taxation of sales of corporate securities is an analogous
problem. There are marginal and supra-marginal buyers, marginal and
supra-marginal sellers. The supra-marginal buyers would be willing to
pay some tax in the form of a higher price for stocks and bonds rather
than to adopt the option of not saving, of lending to private persons,
or of directly managing their own funds. So far as a supra-marginal
buyer pays such a tax, he pays it in effect from the income of the
investment in excess of that necessary to induce him so to invest his
funds. The supra-marginal sellers are those who would rather take less
for corporate securities they have to sell than to be deprived of the
chance to spend or "live out " their capital or than to be
unable to lend to private persons or than to be prevented from
investing directly under their own direction. So far as they pay this
tax it comes out of the surplus labor income which they expect to be
able to get if they can superintend their own capital, or -- if they
intend to spend it in personal consumption -- out of the excess of
consumers' utility above what is necessary to make them choose that
option.
So far we have seen no reason to suggest that such a tax will
diminish saving. The buyer who is marginal between investing in
corporate securities or using up his savings may be induced to do the
latter. But the seller who is marginal between holding his securities
and using up his wealth may be induced by the tax to do the former.
When, however, we come to consider, not the transfer of long-issued
securities from person to person, but the sale of new securities to
provide funds for corporate business, there may be significance in a
tax which reduces the net per cent return to the potential investor.
Conceivably accumulation will be adversely affected, the supply of
capital diminished, the marginal productivity of capital increased,
and the rate of return on capital raised. Or, if the marginal investor
is not marginal between investing in corporate securities and spending
for current consumption, but instead is marginal between investing in
corporate securities and investing under his own management as an
entrepreneur, then such a tax will diminish corporate enterprise, and
may so diminish it and substitute private enterprise in its place,
even where corporate enterprise somewhat better serves the purpose.
Finally, any considerable tax on sales of corporate securities would
of course negative their frequent transfer. A supra-marginal buyer, of
the sort we have described, might prefer to pay such a tax in order
that his money might be invested in corporate securities over a fairly
long period. But he could not so well afford to pay even a small part
of such a tax if he were likely to need to liquidate his investment --
i.e., sell the securities -- a day or two after buying them. A tax of
i per cent on the market value of securities sold might be relatively
unimportant to the long-time investor. But if a security were active
and sold every day, the taxes on it during a year would be several
times its total value. Assuming no market fluctuations, every buyer
would have to sell it for less than he paid for it, by the amount of
the tax. The seller, as such, might bear a part of the tax and the
buyer a part, but the buyer who was also a seller would pay all of the
tax. And only a speculative motive would be likely to induce anyone
deliberately to put himself into such a position.
FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES
- Obviously those in the
industry, along with others, will, as consumers, help pay this or
other taxes levied on commodities.
- If, there being no more money
or bank credit expended, prices of taxed goods rise, other prices
tend to fall. If all commodities are taxed, and their prices rise,
money incomes tend to fall. Where an extra price has to be paid
for an article, because of a tax, the tax money paid tends to be
prevented from acting so immediately to make demand for other
goods as it might were the tax not required. The present writer
discussed this point partially in an article in the Journal of
Political Economy for June, 1920, entitled " Some
Frequently Neglected Factors in the Incidence of Taxation."
Emphasis was then placed on the fact that, in the case of indirect
taxation, the tax money goes through several hands on its way from
consumers to government. But even if consumers, when buying taxed
goods, paid the tax directly to government, the money so paid
might, for a very short time, be prevented from acting so as to
make demand for other goods.
- If the tax is reckoned as I
per cent of the net sale price, it is $99.40; if I per cent of
gross sale price, it is $100.40. It has seemed well enough, in the
text, to reckon the tax at $100 on each sale.
- If there is a larger number of
persons to whom supra-marginal land of the given description is
relatively much better than the rest, then the person who was a
marginal tenant of this land falls below the margin since others
outbid him. The new marginal tenant is one who can afford to pay
more for it. Under these circumstances the difference between
having and not having in the community any given tract of such
land is greater than before. Its marginal product is greater. But
the marginal product of the tenant who is now just induced to hire
such land is less than if there were fewer to bid against him.
Worth-while use of this land does not depend so exclusively upon
him and a few like him.
- Plus a reasonable interest on
the cost of any improvements.
- Though the lender's interest
may be paid out of the rent of land which the borrower has
purchased with the funds loaned to him.
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