What Has Been Accomplished for Womens' Rights
Carrie Chapman Catt
[A speech delivered as a commencement address to the
all female student body
at Sweet Briar College, Virginia, 1936]
"I bring a message to Sweet Briar College and especially to the
Senior class so soon to step beyond its portals into the Great World.
It is not a personal message that I bring and I hasten to add that it
contains no advice, instruction or warning against threatening
bugaboos. My message comes from millions of women now mostly past and
gone. They lived in a single century; they endured, struggled, and
suffered, almost unbelievably, in order that you, unborn in their day,
might inherit privileges, opportunities and liberties for which they
had so prayerfully longed, but were never permitted to know. I speak
for those who gave a name to 'The Woman's Century'.
"That great man, Victor Hugo, predicted the coming of such a
century and it came. He, however, could not have told the date of its
beginning or ending. Since it now is behind us, I am able to tell you
that it lay between 1820 and 1920 and is the only Woman's Century in
the entire history of the human race. What happened in that one
hundred years, why and how it happened, every college woman should
know. She will be happier, more useful, and far more courageous for
the knowledge.
"Just when the Woman Movement began, no one knows. I like to
think that the definite woman movement was lifted out of the
disconnected and far scattered agitation by Mary Wollstonecraft's
book, "The Vindication of the Rights of Women" which was
published about 1795. Into that book she put the entire case of women.
In the words of Blackstone, husband and wife are one and that one is
the husband. Mrs. Wollstonecraft pled that man and wife are not one,
but two persons, both capable of being rational and responsible
beings. Her chief plea was that she wished to place women in "a
station where they would advance and not retard the progress of the
human race" and these ideas became the basis of all action as the
movement developed. Horace Walpole called the young author "a
hyena in petticoats". This epithet crossed the Atlantic and was
applied to many women to close an argument that girls be permitted to
learn the alphabet.
"The status of women was practically uniform the world around at
the beginning of the 19 th century. Religions controlled the marriage
ceremonies. In England and America the bride promised obedience to her
husband and that oath was enforced by law. Should she disagree with
him, or, in any way offend him, he could legally punish her. He could
whip his wife if he did not exceed the standard of severity set by
public opinion. The law left no doubt on this point. The stick used by
the husband must not be thicker than his thumb. He could put his wife
out of his house in to the cold, or shut her up in a room without food
and Courts sustained all these acts in England and America.
"Codes of law existed everywhere. In this country there were
eventually forty-eight of them, one for each state. These codes
provided that, upon marriage, all the bride possessed, including not
only all property but more intimate things, such as her trousseau, her
jewels, her wedding presents, even those given her by her family, her
hair pins and her engagement ring, passed into the possession of her
husband. She was not permitted to manage any property, not to collect
or expend any emoluments arising from it. She enjoyed the fame of
ownership since real property was recorded in her name. While she
lived, she had no control over it and at her death, she could not will
it to others. Some work for wages, women did, but they could not
legally collect or expend their own wages as the earnings of a wife
belonged to her husband.
"Probably women suffered most over the effects of the law which
gave the father sole guardianship over the children. As mothers, women
had few privileges and no rights. The husband could will away all the
children if he chose and frequent cases of unborn babes being so
willed occurred.
"When husband and wife differed in religion, the father could
direct that the children be taught his faith and the wife was obliged
to so teach the children, although she did not believe what she
taught. Children wore the clothes, ate the food, and lived the kind of
life the father might dictate.
Other curious restrictions of individual freedom resulted from custom
and public opinion only. The will of God was usually quoted to support
any custom whose right to exist was questioned. Women did not speak in
public, although no law forbade them. They did not pray in prayer
meetings, vote or speak in business meetings of church members. In
many churches men sat upon one side and women upon the other. For this
custom the explanation was given that "men, uninterrupted, must
be free to lift their souls to God". Women, unmarried or widows,
might keep a bank account, but they rarely entered the bank. Deposits
were made and cash withdrawn by men relatives or neighbors. Women did
not go on the street alone and never entered public places, other than
the church, alone.
Margaret Fuller, the author, once shocked all Boston by sitting down
in a corner of the public library to read a book. Naturally, it
followed that women had never organized for any purpose. In several
countries, including France, Germany and Austria, women were
prohibited from public speaking, organizing, or attending political
meetings. In Germany and Austria women could get police permission to
hold a meeting especially for a foreign speaker. I have, myself,
spoken at such police controlled meetings in Germany and Austria where
police, armed with billies, sat upon the platform prepared to dismiss
the meeting at the first offensive utterance. (I was always warned as
to the subjects to be avoided.) This law still obtained in Austria at
the opening of the Great War.
Women did not always obey these customs of restriction and all of
them finally broke down, because some women would not respect them.
One amusing episode occurred in a Massachusetts small town. There,
town meetings were held, the members being property holders, but women
did not attend. In this town a woman always came and her husband never
did. She spoke and what she said was sensible and practical. She
invariably began her remarks with the words: "My husband, who was
not able to come to-night, thinks . . ." Thus she gained her
hearing. When I began traveling about Eastern and Southern States,
making speeches for women's freedom, many laws had been changed, but
the memories of them were fresh in the minds of the older women. I
found much entertainment in collecting true tales of actual
experiences of earlier times.
One story was particularly amusing and illustrative. A young woman
became a teacher in a country school where she received $1.00 a week
and "boarded around", that is, she boarded without pay one
week in each house of the neighborhood. At the end of a year, she had
saved $12 and with them she bought herself a wedding present of twelve
solid silver spoons at $1 a piece. Her father presented her with a
small house and garden and a cow and there she lived very happily with
her young husband. Soon he sickened and died and as he had made no
will, the law stepped in and gave her one-third of all the property
might bring at sale. The little house, and the cow, her father's gifts
were sold and she was entitled to one-third of their sale price, her
husband's brother receiving the other two-thirds. She was told that if
there were any pieces of furniture she wished to keep, she could do so
and their value would be subtracted from her one-third. She chose to
keep her silver spoons and her third was reduced by $12. She set
herself up in a little room and went out sewing. A widower proposed to
her and she accepted. Soon that husband was killed in an accident and
she when through the same experience as before. Again, she chose to
save her precious silver spoons and again she was charged $1.00 a
piece for them. Again she took up her abode in the little room and
went out sewing. Bye and bye, another man proposed, but now she pursed
her lips tightly and replied: "NO! I have bought my silver spoons
three times. They cost $12 in the beginning, but I have now paid $36
for them and I don't propose to buy them again." Few occupations
were open to women and the wages were small. The most humiliating
factor was that the wife could not legally collect or expend her own
wages. The earnings of a wife belonged to her husband.
A popular novelist in England separated from a drunken and abusive
husband. There were no divorce laws. She lived in small quarters and
kept on writing "best sellers", but the husband legally
collected and spent the royalties, allowing her only enough to pay the
upkeep of modest living quarters while he lived in luxury. Naturally,
it happened that some women were irritated by denial of facilities of
education; others were bitterly aroused over the legal restrictions
put upon married women, that is, management of property, the right to
make a will, the right to collect and use their own earnings, the
right to equal guardianship over children. Still others were annoyed
by limitations fixed by custom only. All of these eventually were
joined in one program and formed the line of progress of The Woman's
Century.
Milestones, indicative of this progress, were scattered all along The
Woman's Century. The first was erected in 1820. In that year, the
Governor of New York, Dewitt Clinton, in his annual message, announced
that for the first time in this country a government had done
something to promote education of the female sex. What New York had
done was merely to incorporate a "female academy" at
Waterford, founded by Mrs. Emma Willard. The next year this academy
combined with another, became The Troy Female Seminary, the first
institution in this country offering higher learning to girls and Mrs.
Willard was the pioneer of what was thereafter called "Higher
Education for Women". Thus, the Century opened. How high the
learning at Troy actually was, we do not know. Previous to 1820, there
had been much agitation in country districts concerning geography as a
suitable study for girls. Many pronounced it "quite inappropriate
for young females", and the most important argument on behalf of
this study appears to have been this: a girl might marry a missionary
or a traveler and go to strange lands in which case a knowledge of
maps and the names of cities, rivers, and the countries would be
useful.
Presumably, geography was included in the studies at Troy. Early in
the history of The Troy Seminary, visitors happened upon a public
examination in geometry. The news of this revolutionary proceeding
spread far and near and excited an amazing amount of comment, the
press and the pulpit having much to say about it. One group declared
geometry to be quite beyond the mental grasp of any woman and its
study, therefore, a silly waste of time. Another group feared that
girls might become so enamoured of geometry that when they married,
they would desert the cradle and the kitchen in order to solve
interesting geometrical problems. The study, however, which aroused
the most astonishment was physiology. Mrs. Russell Sage, who was one
of the early students at Troy, told me that she remembered well that
thick pieces of paper were pasted over the illustration of skeleton
and muscles of the body because their parents thought them too
indecent to be observed by young girls. A graduate of Mrs. Willard's
school reported that mothers left in a body when the class in
physiology was announced. Pauline Wright Davis attempted to teach
physiology to adult women by lectures, illustrated by a manikin. She
said that many women would drop their veils, run out of the room, or
even faint at the sight of the manikin. In 1826, Boston opened a High
School for girls and it continued for eighteen months when it was
closed in response to vituperative opposition, although no girl had
left the school and every seat was taken.
There was no high school for girls in that city until 1852. From the
year 1789 to 1822, girls had only been permitted to attend the public
schools of Boston in the summer months where there were not enough
boys to occupy the seats. At times, they were permitted to attend
school two hours only in the afternoon. All over the country, the
schools were primarily designed for boys and girls had their chance at
them when it was convenient. Private schools, however, came to the
rescue and girls learned enough to become acceptable as teachers of
country schools and the lower grades in cities. At the close of the
century, no woman was uneducated for the want of schools. High schools
are now in every town, universities in every state, and colleges to
the right and to the left of us throughout our land. But education for
girls had, by that date, traveled all the world around.
I was astonished, in 1923, to find one thousand girls attending the
University of Uruguay and another one thousand at the University of
Chili. I have sometimes thought the most thrilling experience of my
life was making a speech in the University of Peru, the oldest
university of the two Americas - older than Harvard. The walls of the
room where I spoke were lined with tiles brought from Spain when it
was built in the time of Pizarro and his Conquistadores. Upon the
tiles white winged vessels sailed the seven seas and grim forts of
feudal architecture protected lands from their fierce attacks. In
those days, girls peered through latticed windows, seeing but unseen.
Now, other girls, with as bold an independence as any Northern born,
were getting higher education in the ancient land of the Incas. 1827
The second milestone in The Women's Century of Progress came in 1827
and was international in character. A German scientist, von Baer,
proved that father and mother contributed equally to the physical and
mental qualities of their child. Before that date, it was uniformly
held that the human and animal male possessed the sole power of
reproduction. Equal physical responsibility, now established, opened
the question as to the extent the mother influenced the mental and
moral character of children, and brought to the attention of the
thinking public Mrs. Wollstonecraft's plea that women should be
qualified to advance rather than to retard the progress of the race.
Personally, I believe the liberation of women would have been greatly
delayed were this discovery not made and accepted promptly by
scientific men. In 1833, came the third milestone: Oberlin College, in
Ohio, admitted girls. It was the first college in the modern world to
admit women. No class was ready to graduate until 1841 when three
girls in that class took the first degrees ever received by women. The
fourth and fifth milestones came in 1840.
Harriet Martineau, the first woman in the world to interest herself
in political science, visited the Untied States. She reported that at
that time seven paid occupations were open to women in this country.
These were teaching primary schools, needle work, keeping boarders,
household service, working in cotton factories, typesetting and
bookbinding. All of these occupations were learned and used in the
home except typesetting. This has given us a standard from which to
measure progress. More important than this was the first World's
Anti-Slavery Convention held in London. The great event that has
outlived the convention itself was the long, stormy, and vehement
debate over the admission of women delegates. The women delegates were
voted out, whereupon William Lloyd Garrison and Nathaniel P. Rogers
refused to sit in the convention, but sat in the gallery with the
women. Lucretia Mott, a rejected delegate, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
the bride of a delegate, indignant at the treatment the women had
received, planned to call a convention upon their return to America,
which would consider the status of women and how to improve it.
In 1848, the sixth milestone was set up. The convention Lucretia Mott
and Elizabeth Cady Stanton had planned eight years before was called
and held at Seneca Falls, New York, where a declaration of principles
was presented, endorsing women's rights to property and wages,
education, more employments, and the vote. This was signed by one
hundred men and women. Two weeks later the delegates met again in
Rochester and finished their work. This program remained practically
unchanged till the end in 1920.
In this same year, 1848, the first woman physician in the world was
graduated at a medical school at Geneva, New York, namely, Dr.
Elizabeth Blackwell. 1860. The Civil War drove all citizen, North and
South, to devote themselves exclusively to that sad catastrophe. In
the forty years from the beginning of The Woman's Century in 1820 and
1860, fifteen states had granted married women the right to make a
will, three states had given married women the right to control their
own property. An unknown number of seminaries, promising higher
learning, had been established, and a few colleges had opened their
doors to women.
The Civil War made one contribution to the Woman Movement. It opened
positions in the Washington departments of government to women. In
1862, there were seven women. In 1870, General Spinner, who had such
employees in charge, reported thousands so employed. The seventh
milestone came in 1869. Wyoming granted full suffrage to women on
equal terms with men, and there women voted for the first time in the
modern world. In that year, the woman movement was reorganized into
two National Associations, but with the same program. These
Associations were merged in 1890 and Wyoming was admitted to Statehood
with woman suffrage in its constitution.
Meanwhile, in every state, campaigns had been waging for the
correction of women's legal status. By 1900, every woman in the United
States, and many other countries, had the right to make a will. The
right to control their own property had been extended to women in many
states, but with heavy restrictions in some. The right to collect and
control her wages had been granted in all states although with
restrictions in some states.
For eight years women had been suppliants for the removal of these
three oppressions. The battle had often been hard and bitterly fought.
One hundred and forty-seven laws had been required to right the wrongs
and they had been passed. There is still work to be done before these
laws in some states are made equal for men and women. The vote came
next and last upon the program, but had advantages. Women were
employed and owned property. They made contributions to campaign funds
not possible in earlier years. There were college women and
professional women to advise and all women had gained a self-reliance
their mothers had not known. They organized more closely, waged their
campaign with better strategy and more assurance and, at the end of
The Woman's Century in 1920, every woman in this, and twenty other
countries, had the vote.
All the world around women enjoyed a freedom of which their
grandmothers never dreamed. To the task of winning the vote women now
enlisted a fresh army under old banners. Before the end, that peaceful
army numbered more than two millions. They scattered tons of
literature in all the languages read in this country. They spoke on
street corners to chance hearers and in larger halls to great
audiences. They organized their propaganda and were heard in the
church, the theatre, the baseball field, and even the circus. Millions
of dollars were raised mainly in small sums and expended with economic
care. Hundreds of women gave the accumulated possibilities of an
entire lifetime, thousands gave years of their lives, and hundreds of
thousands gave constant interest and such aid as they could. In
fifty-two years of pauseless campaign, women conducted 45 State
referenda to male voters; 480 campaigns to urge Legislatures to submit
woman suffrage amendments to voters; 47 campaigns to induce State
Constitutional Conventions to write woman suffrage into State
Constitutions; 277 campaigns to persuade State party conventions to
include woman suffrage planks, 30 campaigns to urge presidential party
conventions to adopt woman suffrage planks in party platforms and 19
campaigns with 19 successive Congresses. It was a continuous,
seemingly endless chain of activity.
Young suffragists, who helped to forge the last links of that chain
were not born when it began. Old suffragists, who forged the first
links, were dead when it came to an end. At the beginning of the
Century, there was probably no school of so-called "higher
learning for girls" in the entire world. Certainly, there were
none in the United States. The less privileged classes were totally
illiterate. Convents, boarding schools, and Dame schools existed, but
the curricula were limited to mere rudiments.
In 1841, three girls had received degrees at Oberlin. By 1920, 30,000
girls had been graduated at colleges and at this time it is estimated
that 372,914 women are attending colleges in this country or
approximately 40% of all college students. The first women students
were forced to hear ridicule and even insult from students, faculties,
the press and the public, but by 1900, the modern college woman was
attended, throughout her college life, with respect and honor, while a
thoroughly converted public received the graduates, diplomas in hand,
with a hospitable welcome. In the beginning, women found all the laws
concerned males and females. The advanced schools and even the first
colleges were female institutions. Those interested did not like these
words as they sounded too much like animals in the zoo. For a time,
gentlemen and ladies replaced male and female, before men and women
finally came. I recall hearing a man say in a speech: "I have
visited a factory where ladies were making overalls for gentlemen."
Thus women were promoted in that century from females to ladies, from
ladies to women [and from women to people.*]
The Century opened with the first school for higher learning for
girls. It closed with the declaration of the Secretary of State that
all women were enfranchised. At the beginning, the list of women's
wrongs was so overwhelming that an estimate of the time necessary for
their correction might have been one thousand years. These changes
were achieved in a hundred. The explanation of the shorter times is
that men were never as dictatorial as the law and women had higher
aspirations than the world knew. All that The Woman's Century
achieved, the women, who were its propulsive force, bequeath to you. I
think they would like me to add one reminder. All the workers in that
Century labored with a common motive. Worded by Mary Wollstonecraft
this was: "Women should advance and not retard progress."
For myself, let me say that those who work for a great cause receive
comforting satisfaction in the knowledge that they will leave the
world better than they found it.
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