Henry George, Ludwig Von Mises
and the Problem of Free Will
Ian T.G. Lambert
[March, 1991]
The problem of free will is as old as philosophy itself. Throughout
history, there have been few philosophers who have not grappled with
it at some stage in their thinking. The problem has been of particular
importance in western philosophy during the last four Gentries,
because of the threat it poses to science, and to social science in
particular, although it has often been lost sight of in the twentieth
century amid the euphoria that has accompanied modern scientific
achievement.
The problem can be formulated purely in the form of a question. Does
man have free will? However, such a question is misleading. It is
fundamentally different, for example, from the question: Are there
flightless birds in China? There is no doubt as to the meaning of that
question or that it should admit of a yes or no answer. It is also
clear how, in practice, one would set about ascertaining the answer by
empirical inquiry. The problem of free will is not so clear in its
meaning; nor is it really clear how one would go about ascertaining an
answer.
Yet, it, is not merely the difficulty in pursuing an answer that
distingushes the problem of free will. The ancient mathematical
problem of "squaring the circle" was one which no-one knew
how to solve, until centuries later it was finally proved that the
problem was impossible to solve. (This problem can be formulated in
the form of the question: Is it possible, using compasses and a
straight edge only, to construct a square of the same area as a given
circle? To which, we now know that the answer is No, the number pi
being "transcendental".)
Nor would the term paradox be entirely appropriate either, perhaps
because that term is usually confined to the realm of theoretical
inquiry, as in the example of "Russell's Paradox" in
mathematics. A paradox consists of two mutually contradictory
statements both of which appear to be true within a formal system. The
result is that either the foundations, or axioms, of the system are
flawed, or the process by which the two statements are derived is
flawed. What is certain is that the real (material) world is not
self-contradictory and it is for this reason that such paradoxes arise
only in theoretical inquiry. Indeed, the deduction of mutually
contradictory propositions within a formal system is one of the
standard methods by which hypothetical models of reality are shown to
be incorrect.
The "problem" of free will is that there is something
essentially problematical about our experience of free will. The
apparent existence of free will creates doubt in our mind about
whether or not determinism is true; the apparent truth of determinism
(as demonstrated by the success of modern science) creates doubt in
our mind about whether or not we have free will.
One solution to the problem, particularly in the period since
Descartes, has been to say that determinism applies to the whole of
the material world, including man's physical body, but does not apply
to that part of man which is not body (spirit, mind, soul, whatever it
might be), which alone has free will. However, this solution -- which
is rather like kicking the table over to prevent yourself from losing
at chess -- only creates further problems, not least that concerning
the interaction of mind and matter.
Henry George
In
The Science of Political Economy, in a chapter devoted to the
character of laws of nature, Henry George combines the problem of free
will with the problem of causation; and in finding a solution to the
latter he stumbles across a solution to the former. In a style
reminiscent of Hume, Heidegger or the later Wittgenstein, he asks the
reader to consider the mundane everyday experiences from which our
idea of causation arises:
"... To say that one thing is a sequence of another
is to say that the one has to the other a relation of succession or
coming after. "To say that one thing is a consequence of
another is to say that the one has to the other a relation not
merely of succession, but of necessary succession, the relation
namely of effect to cause. ...
... When proceeding from what we apprehend as effect or
consequence, we begin to seek cause, it in most cases happens that
the first cause we find, as accounting for the phenomenon, we soon
come to see to be in itself an effect or consequence of an
antecedent which to it is cause. Thus our search for cause begins
again, leading us from one link to another link in the chain of
causation, until we come to a cause which we can apprehend as
capable of setting in motion the series of which the particular
result is the effect or consequence.
... The simplest causal relation we perceive is that which we find
in our consciousness. I scratch my head, I slap my leg, and feel the
effects. I drink, and my thirst is quenched. Here we have perhaps
the closest connection between consequence and cause. The feeling of
head or leg or stomach, which here is consequence, transmitted
through sense to the consciousness, finds in the direct perceptions
of the same consciousness, the cause - an execution of the will. Or,
reversely, the conscious exertion of the will to do those things
produces through the senses a consciousness of result. ...
... Passing beyond the point where both cause and effect are known
by consciousness, we carry the certainty thus derived to the
explanation of phenomena as to which cause and effect, one or both,
lie beyond consciousness. I throw a stone at a bird and it falls.
This result, the fall of the bird, is made known to me indirectly
through ray sense of sight, and later when I pick it up, by my sense
of touch. The bird falls because the stone hit it. The stone hit it
because put in motion by the movement of my hand and arm. And the
movement of my hand and arm was because of my exertion of will,
known to me directly by consciousness.
What we apprehend as the beginning cause in any series, whether we
call it primary cause or final cause, is always to us the cause or
sufficient reason of the particular result. And this point in
causation at which we rest satisfied is that which implies the
element of spirit, the exertion of will. For it is of the nature of
human reason never to rest content until it can come to something
that may be conceived of as acting in itself, and not merely as a
consequence of something else as antecedent, and thus be taken as
the cause of the result or consequence from which the backward
search began. ..."[SPE pp.45 - 49]
George's reasoning can be summarised as follows: My concept of
causation is derived from my experience of my ability to cause things
to happen. My ability to cause things to happen arises from my ability
to will that such things will happen. That act of will I experience,
generally, as something free, in the sense of something within my
control, an uncaused cause. If I did not experience my own free will I
could not have any concept of causation. Thus, the ideas of free will
and of causation are not contradictory or exclusive; rather, they are
opposite sides of the same coin.
This certainly accords with our own everyday experience. We all have
a will and we all, generally, experience our own will as free. If we
seriously doubted the freedom of our own will, how could we ever make
a decision? We all also experience sequential events in a causal
relationship to each other. None of us seriously doubts that there is
such a thing as causation in the universe. The problem of free will
arises from our ability to reason from effect to cause, which in turn
makes us wonder, at times, whether our act of will is itself only an
effect with an antecedent cause; and it is the rare occasions when we
genuinely feel that our act of will has been forced upon us - when we
say "I don't know what come over me" - that make us take the
problem of free will really seriously (and not just as some sort of
idle philosophical puzzle).
Of course, it might seriously be questioned how I could ever be fully
conscious of any external cause which ray will might have. This
finally turns the problem into one of human understanding. It may be
that I will never know the answer to the problem because I am, in a
sense, too close to it - just as the one object which I cannot grasp
in my right hand but which anyone else can grasp in his right hand is
my right elbow; the failure is not so much an anatomical one peculiar
to me as due to mv situation. Against this it may be argued that,
although I may never know the causes of my own will, I should be able
to ascertain other people's, by scientific inquiry. This would
certainly account for the fact that we often find other people's
behaviour predictable while at the same time finding ourselves
mysterious, and that often other people seem to know us better than we
know ourselves. (Oscar Wilde once said that only the shallow really
know themselves.) One objection to this, however, is that, if our
concept of causation arises from reasoning by analogy from our
experiences, there is no direct experience of causation of our own
will -- those rare exceptions apart -- from which we can reason.
George's treatment of the problem of free will is characteristic of
the man and his work. First, he acknowledges (as should any serious
social scientist) the importance of the problem. He knows it cannot be
ingored. He knows that it is a riddle put to any political economist
which not to answer is to be destroyed. Secondly, he translates it
into something personal; the problem of free will really only has
meaning if it means something to me, if it affects my world. Thirdly,
he takes his reader back to the simple everyday experiences from which
the problem arises and has meaning. In doing this, he brings the
individual into the centre stage; the spectator and the spectacle are
brought together. He amply demonstrates, just as Einstein and
Heisenberg did in physics, that the scientist is part of his
experiment and not something external to it.
(This whole approach contrasts starkly with that of a thinker like
Marx, who typifies the man who produces a social theory which explains
everything except the thinker and the theory itself. Marx laid down
the law to everyone, while making himself an exception to every rule;
he dismissed other's theories as Bourgeois propaganda while refusing
to recognise his own Bourgeois origins and it is perhaps not
surprising, therefore, that communist and socialist governments have
acted in the same way, exempting themselves from their own rules. Such
is the legacy of Cartesianism, which allows people to consider that
they are exempt from and independent of events in the world they
occupy, that they are the ones who have magically ascended to the
heights of Sinai from which they can look down upon the world below.
Such is most emphatically not the approach of George, who seeks no
exemptions for himself but rather to include himself at every turn.)
The serious treatment of the problem of free will by an economist is
a rare occurrence. However, George is not unique in this. There have
been others who have recognised that the problem of free will poses a
serious threat to economists, because it questions whether and if so
how a true science of economics is possible, even in theory. One such
thinker was Ludwig Von Mises.
Ludwig Von Mises
In his treatise on economics, Human Action, Von Mises starts by
considering the very same issues as George in The Science of Political
Economy:
"Man is in a position to act because he has the
ability to discover causal relations which determine change and
becoming in the universe. Acting requires and presupposes the
category of causality. Only a man who sees the world in the light of
causality is fitted to act. In this sense we may say that causality
is a category of action. The category means and ends presupposes the
category cause and effect. In a world without causality and
regularity of phenomena there would be no field for human reasoning
and human action. ...
Where man does not see any causal relation, he cannot act. This
statement is not reversible. Even when he knows the causal relation
involved, man cannot act if he is not in a position to influence the
cause.
The archetype of causality research was: where and how must I
interfere in order to divert the cause of events from the way it
would go in the absence of my interference in a direction which
better suits my wishes? In this sense man raises the question; who
or what is at the bottom of things? He searches for the regularity
and the "law", because he wants to interfere. Only later
was this search more extensively interpreted by metaphysics as a
search after the ultimate cause of being and existence. Centuries
were needed to bring these exaggerated and extravagant ideas back
again to the more modest question of where one must interfere or
should one be able to interfere in order to attain this or that end.
The treatment accorded to the problem of causality in the last
decades has been, due to a confusion brought about by some eminent
physicists, rather unsatisfactory. We may hope that this unpleasant
chapter in the history of philosophy will be a warning to future
philosophers." [HA p.22]
Georoe and Von Mises
This brings us back to the point where we began. Man, says Von Mises,
only acts, i.e. only exerts his will, where he seeks to cause things
to happen. It is our knowledge of causation that enables us to act
effectively. Nothing better illustrates that free will and causation
are opposite sides of the same coin, for it is George who points out
that it is only our experience of free will that enables us to have
any concept, and therefore knowledge, of causation.
George seems to assert the primacy of the will, Von Mises the primacy
of causation; but in reality neither is prior to the other. Child
psychologists tell us, and keen observation of infants confirms, that
the newly born baby experiences the world without "ego boundaries"
and that he slowly discovers that he has a thing called a will. It is
typically at the "terrible" age of two that he exerts his
will most intensively and at the same time begins to learn the
limitations on the effectiveness of his will. It is precisely at this
stage, when he learns precisely what he can will and how, that he
likewise begins truly to understand cause and effect. Free will and
causation are therefore intrinsically inseparable experiences.
George and Von Mises are thus able not so much to solve the problem
of free will as to dissolve it by drawing the elements together into a
more unified whole, while at the same time acknowledging its vital
importance to the economist:
"We must simply establish the fact that in order to
act, man must know the causal relationship between events, processes
or states of affairs. And only as far as he knows this relationship,
can his action attain the ends sought. We are fully aware that in
asserting this we are moving in a circle. For the evidence that we
have correctly perceived a causal relation is provided only by the
fact that action guided by this knowledge results in the expected
outcome. But we cannot avoid this vicious circular evidence
precisely because causality is a category of action. And because it
is such a category, praxeology cannot help bestowing some attention
on this fundamental problem of philosophy." [HA p.23]
The consequences of this for the activities carried on by modern
economists are very serious.
Modern economics
Both George and Von Mises would have attacked economic modeling as a
barren activity doomed to fail because it must subscribe wholesale to
determinism and dismiss free will as something wholly illusory:
"... the sciences of human action differ radically
from the natural sciences. All authors eager to construct an
epistemological system of the sciences of human action according to
the pattern of the natural sciences err lamentably. ...
Here we are faced with one of the main differences between physics
and chemistry on the one hand and the sciences of human action on
the other. In the realm of physical and chemical events there exist
(or, at least/ it is generally assumed that there exist) constant
relations between magnitudes, and man is capable of discovering
these constants with a reasonable degree of precision by means of
laboratory experiments. No such constant relations exist in the
field of human action outside of physical and chemical technology
and therapeutics. ... Those economists who want to substitute "quantitative
economics" for what they call "qualitative economics"
are utterly mistaken ... if a statistician determines that a rise of
10 percent in the supply of potatoes in Atlantis at a definite time
was followed by a fall of 8 percent in the price, he does not
establish anything about what has happened or may happen with a
change in the supply of potatoes in another country or at another
time." [HA pp 39-55]
Exactly the same criticisms can be made of econocyclists, who seek to
predict the future on the basis of what they perceive as regular
patterns or cycles of economic behaviour in the past. This too is a
denial of free will; but at the same time the econocyclist asserts
that we can alter the course of future events based on our knowledge
of such cycles.
Similarly, Von Mises dismisses mathematical economics as a
misconceived enterprise, as did George, notwithstanding the fact that
Von Mises and George's work and approach has much in common with that
of the pure mathematician or logician:
"The mathematical economists' disregard dealing with
the actions which, under the imaginary and unrealisable assumption
that no further new data will emerge, are supposed to bring about
the evenly rotating economy. They do not notice the individual
speculator who aims not at the establishment of the evenly rotating
economy but at profiting from an action which adjusts the conduct of
affairs better to the attainment of the ends sought by acting, the
best possible removal of uneasiness. They stress the imaginary state
of equilibrium which the whole complex of all such actions would
attain in the absence of any further change in the data. They
describe this imaginary equilibrium by sets of simultaneous
differential equations. They fail to recognise that the state of
affairs they are dealing with is a state in which there is no longer
any action but only a succession of events provoked by a mystical
prime mover. They devote all their efforts to describing, in
mathematical symbols, various "equilibria", that is,
states of rest and the absence of action. They deal with equilibrium
as if it were a real entity and not a limiting notion, a mere mental
tool. What they are doing is vain playing with mathematical symbols,
a pastime not suited to convey any knowledge." [HA p.250]
These three areas of inquiry, economic modeling, econocylcology and
mathematical economists have been notoriously unsuccessful at
predicting the future state of the economy, with most of their
advocates praying free will in aid as a reason why their predictions
did not come true, the government or a war or some other event
interfering with the natural and ordinary course of events. It is not
without some justification that an economist has been defined as "a
man who tells you today why what he predicted yesterday would happen
tomorrow has not".
True nature of economics
Disconcerting though all this may be to the modern economist, even
more unnerving is George's and Von Mises' assertion that the science
of political economy or economics is neither an empirical science nor
a theoretical construct based on ideal types, but is essentially a
priori:
"Praxeology is a theoretical and systematic, not a
historical, science. ... Its statements and propositions are not
derived from experience. They are, like those of logic and
mathematics, a priori. They are not subject to verification or
falsification on the ground of experience and facts. They are both
logically and temporally antecedent to any comprehension of
historical facts. They are a necessary requirement of any
intellectual grasp of historical events. Without them we should not
be able to see in the course of events anything else than
kaleidoscopic change and chaotic muddle. ...
... We must bethink ourselves and reflect upon the structure of
human action. Like logic and mathematics, praxeological knowledge is
in us; it does not come from without." [H.A. pp 32-64]
"The place I would take is not that of a teacher, who states
what is to be believed, but rather that of a guide, who points out
by looking what is to be seen. So far from asking the reader blindly
to follow me, I would urge him to accept no statement that he
himself can doubt, and to adopt no conclusion untested by his own
reason." [SPE xxxvii]
"In the face of all this frenzied agitation it is expedient to
establish the fact that the starting point of all praxeological and
economic reasoning, the category of human action, is proof against
any criticisms and objections. ...From the unshakable foundation of
the category of human action praxeology and economics proceed step
by step by means of discursive reasoning. ...
And let us emphasise it even at this early point of our
investigations -- action necessarily always aims at future and
therefore uncertain conditions and thus is always speculation."
[H.A. pp67-58]
Both George and Von Mises can thus be seen as truly speculative
philosophers and the science of political economy a part of philosophy
in its broadest sense.
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